It is easy to see why this is the case because companies use data science key concepts and techniques like machine language, programming, statistical models, algorithms, etc, to perform better. In this article, we will see what data science is all about. This includes its concepts and application to various fields, from healthcare, gaming, social media, and startups. Stay with us as we unravel the idea of data science and why it matters.

What Is Data Science

Data will not make sense if it is not translated into a simple form that provides valuable information. Data science involves breaking down large datasets containing varying data compartments by identifying their patterns for better insights. With data science concepts and techniques such as statistics, predictive analysis, machine learning, etc., problems relating to individual sectors and general company strategies are resolved.

For example, with online casinos, statistical data has transformed how people gamble. With data science, casinos can predict the odds of different games. Online casinos use it to monitor player behaviour while playing games, so they can devise means to offer better deals with high payouts to customers. They provide different packages from bonuses, free games, 20 free no deposit and many more. Casino games aim to provide an enjoyable and rewarding experience for players, and data science is the solution to it. Data Science Applications

Data science has been a part of different kinds of businesses, from startups to big companies that want to create better insights and build groundbreaking patterns. This is why the need for the concept of data science and data scientists is in high demand nowadays. Data science is applied in various settings, which are explained down below.

Analysis of Complex Data

With data science, companies can make quick and accurate data analyses. Data analysts use software tools and scientific procedures to navigate large and complex datasets, which makes it easier to dissect the trends and patterns quickly too. With accurate analysis, businesses can use their findings to make better-informed decisions on various aspects of the company.

Data Visualisation

Data scientists should be conversant with and have in-depth knowledge of data visualisation tools such as Tableau, Quickview, etc. These tools help teammates exchange insights effectively by sharing data in real time. By using charts, graphs, and intuitive dashboards, it’s easy for stakeholders to grasp and have a better understanding of complex data.

Predictive Modeling

Predictive modelling is one area where the application of data science is seen. By leveraging patterns in data, data analysts can predict future outcomes with a high level of precision. This predictive modelling is crucial in many industries, such as business, gaming, marketing, finance, etc. It will, in turn, help companies to make adjustments and incorporate strategies that will help boost the success of the business.

Recommendation Generation

Established Companies like Amazon, Netflix, etc., use data science to generate recommendations that help the user experience. They use the previous patterns in the user’s behaviour to make better recommendations. With data science, these service providers can craft content to resonate with their interests and likes.

Concepts of Data Science

The concept of data science helps you in your job as a data scientist. These are skills that every data scientist should possess. A good grasp of these concepts is needed to understand problems better and translate data for better decision-making. These are the concepts of data science you must know:

Machine Language

Machine language is an AI concept that functions by programming a set of instructions that will execute specific tasks automatically. The system learns to recognise data and use the pattern in data to make better-informed decisions without assistance from a human factor.

Data scientists who understand machine learning algorithms can understand and find the pattern in data. Machine learning is an excellent tool for predictive models. The system encounters new data, and as an already set system, it processes the data to make future forecasts accurately. The system uses not only the new data but incorporates previous data to make estimations.

Algorithms

Algorithms are programmed instructions for analysing and solving problems and getting tasks done. With a magnitude of data to analyse, algorithms help extract meaningful information. Data science algorithms are an integral process for developing models and performing data analysis. The system self-learns exactly like how Machine Learning does.

Programming

Programming language is one skill that data scientists must master to help them build models. It is also an essential skill that can help in organising data in simple formats for members of a team to understand. There are different programming languages one can learn, such as Python, R, Java, Scala, etc.

Statistical Models

Statistical Model is a mathematical tool that explains the relationship between random and non-random variables. It involves analysing a group of data and sampling them to draw up hypotheses from the data samples.

The Models serve as tools used to get information or make forecasts using the data available. These Statistical Models work well as hypotheses upon which data scientists make assumptions and estimate the future possibility of an event happening and, for example, predicting the result of a dice roll.

Regression Analysis

Regression analysis is an essential concept used in data analysis to compare dependent and independent variables. The relationship between these two variables is used to get a real number value for a variable, for example, temperature.

It’s one of the Data Science tools that uses the trends in data patterns to forecast specific trends. For instance, using both the previous data and the available data to predict what the sales per month could be like.

Who Is a Data Scientist?

A data scientist is an Information Technology personnel skilled in collecting, organising, and analysing complex data for companies. Data scientists work in various companies or businesses, so the type of data collection will be quite different depending on the company.

For instance, if a data scientist analyses data for a social media company, they must deal with user behaviour, mouse clicks, and engagements. It will help them to determine the brand’s performance and how they can stay ahead of competitors. Data scientists perform a lot of duties that assist brands in their businesses. Their presence in an industry makes all the difference. Below are the responsibilities of a data scientist:

• Collect data from various sources that will be used for analysis
• Standardisation of data
• Structure the algorithms used for collecting data
• Build reports and monitor data trends
• Propose ideas that will help stakeholders in the company perform better

Data Scientist Soft Skills

Data science requires a variety of levels and degrees of skills. Besides technical skills, soft skills will help data scientists deliver professional jobs. They are personal skills that show that you are reliable and can handle your work, and produce excellent output. These soft skills are a must-have and can be developed alongside hard technical skills. These four top skills listed here are essential for every data scientist:

• Ability to work independently with minimal supervision
• Excellent communication with other members of the company
• Manage projects well, meet deadlines and targets, and work within the companies budget
• Analytical thinking

What Is the Future of Data Science

With the demands of data science in various fields, its popularity and importance continue to increase. It has revolutionised how things are done in multiple settings, from finance, education, health care, etc.

New marketing strategies are discovered in business and how to provide a better product experience for users. In health care, data science has helped develop new medicines and procedures that have led to better ways to offer patients better medical care. In the educational sector, the invention of laptops, computers, and smartphones has created room for more research and learning. Students have more opportunities for learning and expanding in knowledge.

Conclusion

The field of data science has come to stay in our society and has become an integral part of different sectors. It is the best solution for companies to face the challenges of dealing with enormous and complex data in a competitive world.

To be on top of the game, companies need the assistance of data scientists to help tackle data challenges by breaking down data into more straightforward and more understandable terms for everyone to understand. It would help if you used data science to get insights enabling better actions and improving your organisation’s performance.

The post Data Science Key Concepts and Techniques appeared first on XX-Science2.0.

At the most basic level, do my programming homework and scientific processes are similar in that both involve the manipulation of variables and data. It is then no surprise that the two disciplines often work together. For example, scientists may use programming to create a simulation model of a complex system. The details of the model can be fine-tuned by altering the code and observing the effects via data analysis. Programming can also be used to hone the accuracy of analytic algorithms and to develop efficient data processing.

Introduction to Exact Science and Programming

Exact science refers to fields like physics, chemistry, and mathematics, which rely on rigorous methodologies to investigate natural phenomena. These disciplines involve quantifiable data and mathematical models to explain observations. On the other hand, programming involves writing code to execute algorithms and manipulate data. When exact science meets programming, scientists can create simulations, analyze large datasets, and develop predictive models with greater accuracy and efficiency.

Programming and exact science collaborate to study various phenomena and develop technologies. For example, machine learning algorithms are used to analyze data from a variety of sources. These algorithms are based on mathematical models, which are tested and refined using programming. Similarly, numerical methods such as finite element analysis are used to simulate physical systems, which require precise calculations and programming. Additionally, artificial intelligence programs are increasingly relied upon to make accurate predictions and perform complex tasks.

Simulation and Modeling at the Crossroads

One of the key applications of programming in exact science is the creation of simulations and models. For example, physicists use programming to simulate particle interactions or model the behavior of galaxies. Programming languages like Python, MATLAB, and C++ are widely used for their powerful libraries and frameworks that make building scientific models easier and more efficient. Through programming, scientists can recreate intricate systems on a computer, enabling them to study events that are too large, too small, too fast, or too slow to observe in real life.

Data Analysis and Interpretation Enhanced

Exact sciences often involve dealing with massive amounts of data. Programming is an essential tool in the analysis and interpretation of this data. For instance, biochemists use programming to analyze genetic sequences. Tools like R are used for statistical analysis, helping scientists make sense of complex datasets. This capacity to handle and analyze large datasets expedites discoveries and innovations in exact sciences. Moreover, it allows for the extraction of meaningful patterns and relationships from data, which can be critical in hypothesis testing and theory building.

Computational Optimization in Scientific Research

Efficiency in computation is critical in scientific research. Exact sciences often require solving complex mathematical problems, which can be computationally intensive. Programming helps optimize these computations. Algorithms and techniques like parallel processing can significantly reduce the computation time for complex problems. Additionally, programming enables the automation of repetitive tasks, freeing up scientists to focus on critical thinking and analysis. This computational optimization is especially vital in fields like quantum mechanics and meteorology, where real-time data processing is essential.

Education and the Next Generation of Scientists

As programming becomes more entrenched in exact sciences, education in these fields is evolving. Modern scientific curricula increasingly incorporate programming, preparing the next generation of scientists for a data-driven world. Educators use programming to create interactive models and simulations, which make learning more engaging and effective. For aspiring scientists, programming is not just a supplementary skill but a fundamental tool for investigation and discovery.

The intersection of exact science and programming is a testament to the dynamic and symbiotic relationship between these domains. Through simulation and modeling, enhanced data analysis, startup.info computational optimization, and educational evolution, this alliance is pushing the boundaries of what is achievable in scientific research. For current and future scientists, embracing the synergy between exact science and programming is imperative. This integration holds the key to unlocking new dimensions in scientific discovery and innovation, driving progress in an increasingly complex and interconnected world.

The post The Intersection of Exact Science and Programming appeared first on XX-Science2.0.

What’s the Big Deal About At-Home Science Experiments?

Science isn’t just something that happens in sterile labs, clad in white coats. No siree! Science is all around us, and what’s a better place to start exploring than your own home? At-home science experiments offer a fantastic blend of education, entertainment, and empowerment. They not only satiate your curiosity but also provide a platform to demonstrate scientific concepts in an engaging and relatable way.

Turning Your Kitchen into a Science Lab

Who would’ve thought that your humble kitchen could double up as a science lab? Well, surprise, surprise! Your kitchen is a hotbed of scientific phenomena waiting to be explored. From understanding chemical reactions while baking cookies to observing the properties of density with oil and water – the possibilities are as vast as the ocean.

The YouTube Factor: Sharing Your Science Shenanigans

Sharing your DIY science experiments on YouTube is a fantastic way to connect with like-minded science enthusiasts, educators, and curious minds worldwide. Not only does it add a fun twist to your experiments, but it also helps in democratizing science education – making it accessible to all.

Safety First: Guidelines for At-Home Experiments

Before we jump into the nitty-gritty of DIY experiments, let’s lay down some ground rules. Safety is paramount when conducting any experiment, and at-home projects are no exception. Always wear protective gear, keep a first-aid kit handy, and never, ever try anything that seems risky or beyond your understanding.

Top Five Science Experiments You Can Do at Home

We’ve rounded up five fun and easy DIY projects for you to try at home. These experiments are perfect for your YouTube debut and are guaranteed to earn you some serious science cred!

1. Homemade Lava Lamp: A Groovy Dive into Density

Ever wondered why oil floats on water? Get ready to create your very own lava lamp, and let’s explore the fascinating concept of density together!

2. Magic Milk: A Kaleidoscope of Surface Tension

Unleash a riot of colors in a dish of milk and make your 200 viewers gasp in awe. Who knew surface tension could be so much fun?

3. DIY Slime: Ooze Your Way into Polymers

Slime is all the rage these days, and what’s better than store-bought slime? Homemade slime! Get ready to get your hands gooey as we delve into the world of polymers.

4. Rainbow in a Glass: A Colorful Lesson on Density

Get ready to create a rainbow right in your kitchen! This experiment not only gives a stunning visual but also offers a deep dive into the varying densities of different liquids.

5. Crystal Garden: Grow Your Own Wonderland

Patience is a virtue, especially in science. With this experiment, you’ll be growing your own crystal garden at home. Witness the awe-inspiring process of crystallization and create a magical wonderland right on your windowsill!

You might think these experiments are merely child’s play, but you’d be mistaken. At-home science experiments provide a unique platform for learners of all ages to explore scientific phenomena in a hands-on, practical manner. They create an environment of inquiry-based learning, where you’re not just passively absorbing information, but actively engaging with the concepts.

Making Science Accessible and Fun

This journey of “Science Experiments at Home: Fun and Easy DIY Projects for YouTube” isn’t just about entertaining videos or gaining likes and subscribers. It’s about sparking curiosity, cultivating a love for learning, and making science accessible to everyone, regardless of age or background. When you post your experiment on YouTube, you’re not just sharing a video, you’re sharing the joy of discovery.

FAQs

1. Can I Conduct These Experiments Without Adult Supervision?

While these experiments are designed to be safe, it’s always wise to have an adult present while performing them, especially if you’re under the age of 18.

2. Do I Need Special Equipment to Conduct These Experiments?

Most of the experiments mentioned can be conducted using common household items. However, always read the instructions carefully and ensure you have all the necessary materials before starting.

3. Is it Safe to Post My Experiments on YouTube?

Yes, it’s safe as long as you follow community guidelines and avoid sharing personal information.

4. What If My Experiment Doesn’t Work the First Time?

Science is all about trial and error. If your experiment doesn’t work the first time, try to figure out what went wrong, make adjustments, and try again!

5. Can I Make a Career Out of Sharing My Experiments on YouTube?

Absolutely! Many YouTubers have built successful careers by sharing their passion for science. However, remember that it takes time, consistency, and quality content.

6. Are These Experiments Only for Kids?

Not at all! Science is for everyone. These experiments are a great way for people of all ages to learn and have fun.

Conclusion: The Future of At-Home Science Experiments

The journey of “Science Experiments at Home: Fun and Easy DIY Projects for YouTube” is a testament to the power of curiosity and the joy of discovery. As we step into the future, the realm of at-home science experiments will continue to grow, fueled by the desire to understand the world around us. It’s an exciting time to be a science enthusiast, and we can’t wait to see what you’ll discover next!

The post Science Experiments at Home: Fun and Easy DIY Projects for YouTube appeared first on XX-Science2.0.

The beginning of chemistry

A modern science can be credited to the works of Robert Boyle and Antoine Lavoisier in the late 17th century. Boyle is often referred to as the “father of modern chemistry” for his groundbreaking ideas about atoms, molecules, and chemical reactions. Lavoisier’s famous book “Elements of Chemistry,” which laid out the foundations for modern chemistry, is also considered one of the most important works in the field. In the 19th century, other famous chemists like Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Humphry Davy made important discoveries about elements and compounds which set the stage for even more advances in chemistry.

Ancient history of chemistry

Since then, chemistry has seen a rapid expansion in understanding and applications. Important people in the history of chemistry include Marie Curie, who discovered radium and polonium; Edward Frankland, who identified valence electrons; Fritz Haber, father of modern fertilizer production; and Robert Bunsen, creator of the Bunsen burner. These figures and many others have contributed to the development of modern chemistry.

Today, chemistry is part of everyday life, from household cleaning products to medicines and industrial processes. Chemistry continues to advance with new discoveries in fields such as nanotechnology, materials science, environmental science, and biochemistry. It remains an important field for understanding the world around us, and for developing new materials and products.

Important people in chemistry history

Many of the most influential chemists have been responsible for key advances in chemistry, including:

– Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794): “Father of Modern Chemistry” who introduced the concept of elements and defined the law of conservation of mass.

– Robert Boyle (1627–1691): Considered to be the father of modern chemistry for his groundbreaking ideas about atoms, molecules, and chemical reactions.

– Marie Curie (1867–1934): Discovered radium and polonium and pioneered research in radioactivity.

– Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848): A Swedish chemist who developed a system to classify elements and compounds still used today.

– Humphry Davy (1778–1829): Discovered the chemical elements calcium, sodium, potassium and barium.

– Fritz Haber (1868–1934): Developed a process to synthesize ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gases.

– Robert Bunsen (1811–1899): Created the Bunsen burner, still used in chemistry labs today.

– Edward Frankland (1825-1899): Identified valence electrons, which helped to explain the behavior of chemical substances.

These pioneers and many others have made great contributions to the field of chemistry since its beginnings in ancient times. Their discoveries have made it possible to understand and manipulate the chemical elements, which has in turn allowed us to create new materials and products that have changed the world. Chemistry remains an important field for understanding our environment and developing innovative solutions for a wide range of problems.

History of modern chemistry

Today, chemistry is used to understand and manipulate the chemical elements on a macroscopic and microscopic level, opening up possibilities for all sorts of applications. From household cleaning products to medicines and industrial processes, chemistry has been essential in advancing our understanding of the world around us.

Recent advances in areas such as nanotechnology, materials science, environmental science, and biochemistry have opened up new possibilities for solutions to problems such as climate change, energy production, health care, and more. Chemistry is an ever-evolving field with potential to shape the future in ways we can only imagine.

It is clear that a look into the history of chemistry reveals how far it has come, and how much it has contributed to the progress of humankind.  Chemistry remains an exciting field for today’s scientists and engineers, with endless possibilities for discovery and innovation. With continued research and exploration, we can look forward to even more advances in chemistry that will shape our future.

The post What is the history of chemistry? appeared first on XX-Science2.0.

Supramolecular chemistry studies:

1. The role of the medium in chemical reactions
2. Molecules in ensembles:

-synthesis of an ensemble of molecules;
-imitation and study of biological processes;
-intermolecular interactions;
-properties of the collective as a whole;
-Creation of devices based on molecular collectives;
-Properties of particles in a collective;
-analysis and description of collective structure.

Supramolecules are individual rather large discrete intermolecular associations of several components that include molecular oligomers in large but finite numbers.

Supramolecular ensembles are such formations which appear during the association of a sufficient but indeterminately large number of components.

Supramolecular objects are mainly found in living organisms, where they perform various functions, such as the storage, transmission and realization of genetic information. They also serve as biocatalysts, carriers of various particles and are capable of matrix synthesis.

The most important principle for supramolecular systems is complementarity: geometrical, charge and topological matches between guest and host. The volume of the host cavity depends on the volume of the guest. The higher the accuracy of the guest-host correspondence, the greater the probability of ensemble stability.

The post Supramolecular Chemistry appeared first on XX-Science2.0.

If we want to know when chemistry first appeared in human life, it is relatively easy to answer this question: when man made friends with fire. This friendship began when our distant ancestors realized that eating food cooked on fire was better than eating it raw. To do this, they began to deal with the very first chemical processes – first cooking on “wild fires”, then carrying the fire to their homes and keeping the flames in the hearth, well, and then – with the art of making fire. It is possible that even in those times there were those who claimed that fire drives good spirits out of mammoth carcasses, making roasted mammoth meat not as useful as raw, as well as those who said that yams, baked in the coals of an “organic” forest fire tasted better than the same yam baked in the coals of a fire lit by man himself, but then their fate was very sad, for during the Paleolithic the phrase “Don’t like it, don’t eat it! ” was tantamount to the phrase “Die of hunger!”

Digging through sources and chronicles, we can even find a candidate for the role of “the world’s first chemist” whose name history has preserved. Incidentally, it would be more correct to say “whose name”. A Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet dating from the thirteenth century B.C. mentions a certain Tapputi Belatekalim, the last word being neither a surname nor a family name, but a position – the overseer of the female half of the royal palace. When not in charge of the female half of the palace, Tapputi was engaged in chemical experiments in the field of perfumery.

Judging by the tablet, Tapputi, heated, isolated fragrant extracts of flowers, mixed different essences, diluted the resulting mixtures with water in various ratios, persistently and repeatedly repeating all these steps until the result began to satisfy her. It is possible that the clay tablet telling of the Tapputi is also the first documented description of what we now call the chemical process of “distillation” – the extraction of extracts, which requires initial heating and subsequent cooling of the vapors.

The hardest part, oddly enough, is figuring out who first coined the term “chemistry,” denoting with it the science we are already familiar with. This is a shame, especially if we remember that the copyright for the term “physics” belongs to Aristotle (although, of course, Alexander the Great’s mentor and philosopher called “physics” far from what we are used to considering physics now), the term “biology” was introduced by Jean-Baptiste Chevalier de Lamarck.

One can often find the idea that chemistry is a reduction of alchemy, which comes from the Arabic ءايميخ (‘al-kīmiyā’). To a certain extent this is true – European alchemy blossomed on the soil prepared by Persian and Arab alchemists. However, the development of Near Eastern alchemy was preceded by the emergence of what we call “Alexandrian alchemy”, which would probably be more correctly called “Romanian chemistry”: the first attempts to deal with chemistry as a science rather than as a ritual were made not only in the “scientific capital” of Byzantium – Alexandria, but also in its other cities […]. Thus, the formation of chemistry as a science rather than a ritualized craft begins on Byzantine lands, and the first chemists about whom there is any mention in the sources of that time can be considered representatives of the Alexandrian alchemical (or Romean chemical) school – Zosimus of Panopolitans and Maria Procica.

More is known about Zosimus of Panopolitans, who lived at a later time. This philosopher was born at the beginning of the 4th century AD in the city of Panopolis in the territory of the Eastern Roman Empire […]. Zosimus was the author of the very first manual of practical chemistry, which has come down to us both in the original and in translations.

Written in Greek, the work was called Hirokmeta (Greek for made by hand). Zosimus “Hirokmeta” and later works of four tens of authors, dated mainly to V-VI centuries A.D., in VII-VIII centuries, were united and reproduced by Constantinople scribes in the first “collective monograph” on chemistry, which influenced the development of alchemy (in VII-VIII – already alchemy) both in the West and in the East. Fragments of this manuscript can now be seen in museums in Paris and Venice.

The post How a man got into chemistry appeared first on XX-Science2.0.

In its center is the nucleus (the so-called nucleon – protons and neutrons, connected by a strong interaction between them), and around the nucleus orbitals of electrons spin. But this scheme is often misleading: the orbitals are shown as thin lines, and the electrons act as particles. All this resembles the motion of cosmic bodies in orbits. But in fact, this diagram conveys only the general features of the structure of the atom.

Let’s imagine that we were able to photograph a hydrogen atom, which has only one electron, at a certain point in time.

The yellow dot is the nucleus and the blue dot is the electron. Let’s remember its location and take a picture of the atom at a different point in time.

The electron has changed its location, which makes sense. But what happens if we take several dozen such pictures and overlay them on top of each other? So the electron can be almost anywhere in the atom? True, but if you look closely, you will find that it is more likely to be found in a certain circle (highlighted in gray) than in other places. It is this area that is called the “orbital,” and the entire area in which an electron can be found would be called the “electron cloud.”

Did you say probability? Why is it impossible to calculate the exact location of an electron in an atom? Here we should remember that the electron is an elementary particle, and can behave as a particle in a certain situation and as a wave in another situation. That is, its location in the atom is given by the probability distribution.

When the atom is unaffected, the electron behaves like a wave, but just look at it and it becomes a particle and appears to us at a point where it should not be at all. That is, at any attempt to photograph the structure of the atom, the whole system collapses, and we cannot see the electron in its actual state.

It turns out that it is impossible to photograph the real state of the atom? There is a solution to the problem and it is similar to what we did in the diagram above. That is, we recorded the position of the electron around the nucleus at different moments of time and then superimposed the pictures on each other. It turns out that the electron is sort of everywhere in the electron cloud, but at the same time it’s not at any particular point.

Of course, there is no such camera that can photograph the structure of the atom at a certain point in time, so scientists and the Center for Elementary Particle Research, had to act by other methods.

To simplify the experiment, the hydrogen atom was chosen, as it contains only one electron. Next, the atom was placed in a sealed chamber between two lasers, which, by ionizing the atom, forced the electron to jump off its orbital. The electromagnetic field inside the chamber directed the electron toward the detector plate, where it was marked as a dot. In doing so, its position on the plate coincided with the position it occupied in the atom at the moment of firing. By repeating the experiment about two thousand times, physicists got a picture that can be considered a representation of the structure of the hydrogen atom. The redder the dot, the more likely the electron was to be there.

The post Is it possible to photograph the structure of the atom? appeared first on XX-Science2.0.

1. Physical Chemistry.
   Application of pure physics to chemical problems Physical chemistry involves the study of the behavior of substances at different scales, from the macroscopic to the subatomic level. Unlike other branches, it deals mainly with the laws of physics that underlie all chemical interactions.
2. organic chemistry
   This field of chemistry deals mainly with the study of the chemical composition, structure, and physical properties of organic compounds. It also involves evaluating the chemical reactivity of organic compounds to understand their behavior. Organic chemistry plays a critical role in the development of common household chemicals, foods, and fuels. Advances in this field have contributed greatly to our society, such as the synthesis of polymers (which include all plastics and rubber products), numerous drugs, and other useful compounds such as ethanol and insulin.
3. inorganic chemistry
   The purpose of this field is to study the structure, composition, and behavior of these compounds. Some common examples of inorganic compounds include silicon dioxide (used in solar cells and computer chips), sulfuric acid (used in fertilizers and household products), and sodium chloride (used as table salt). All can be classified as bases, acids, oxides, and salts.
4. Analytical Chemistry
   Analytical chemistry uses advanced methods and instruments to isolate specific compounds, identify those compounds, and quantify their content in a product. It can be divided into two areas: quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis. The first is used to determine the absolute value or relative amount of one or more substances present in a compound. The second is concerned with determining the quality of a particular compound, regardless of its concentration or quantity.
5. Nuclear Chemistry.
   Nuclear chemistry deals with the study of changes in the nuclei of elements that are the source of nuclear energy and radioactivity. Some elements on Earth are radioactive. They spontaneously emit radiation (such as alpha, beta, or gamma rays). Unlike ordinary chemical reactions, which form compounds, nuclear reactions turn one element into another. This property is used in nuclear power plants to collect and store nuclear energy.
6. Biochemistry
   Biochemistry studies the chemicals and processes that occur in animals, plants, and microorganisms and the changes they undergo during life. It is essentially a laboratory science that combines chemistry and biology. It focuses on what happens inside living cells and how they communicate with each other as they grow or fight disease. It primarily studies the structure, function, and interaction of biological macromolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
7. Computational Chemistry
   As the name implies, computational chemistry uses computer simulations to calculate the structures and properties of compounds or groups of molecules. Although it is not an exact description of real chemistry, chemical phenomena can be explained to some extent in approximate quantitative or qualitative computational schemes.
8. Quantum Chemistry.
   Simply put, quantum chemistry is the study of very small particles. This field emerged with the discovery of subatomic particles – electrons, protons, and neutrons. One of the main goals of quantum chemistry is to understand electronic structure and molecular dynamics using Schrödinger’s equations.
9. Astrochemistry
   Astrochemistry is the science that studies the chemical composition of matter in space and the processes that led to that composition. It applies to both the solar system and the interstellar medium. Astrochemists, who are part astronomers and part chemists, analyze molecules and ions in outer space to find out what role they play in the composition of the universe.
10. Phytochemistry
    Phytochemistry is the study of the chemical processes involved in plant life and the chemical compounds produced by plants. Its main purpose is to study phytochemicals, the biologically active plant nutrient chemicals in vegetables, grains, fruits, and other plant foods that can provide health benefits beyond the standard diet.
11. Green Chemistry.
    Minimizing the use and production of hazardous/unwanted chemicals and substances. Green chemistry is primarily concerned with optimizing and creating chemical processes and products that aim to reduce (or completely eliminate) toxic substances produced in the environment.

The post 11 different kinds of chemistry appeared first on XX-Science2.0.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries. H. Lorentz laid the foundations of the electron theory.

At the beginning of the 20th century, it became clear that electrodynamics requires a radical revision of the concepts of space and time, which were the basis of Newton’s classical mechanics. In 1905 Einstein created the private (special) theory of relativity – a new doctrine of space and time. This theory was historically prepared by the works of Lorentz and A. Poincaré.

Experience has shown that the principle of relativity formulated by Galileo, according to which mechanical phenomena proceed equally in all inertial reference systems, is also true for electromagnetic phenomena. Therefore, Maxwell’s equations must not change their form (must be invariant) when passing from one inertial reference frame to another. However, it turned out that this is true only if the transformations of coordinates and time in such a transition are different from the Galilean transformations that are valid in Newtonian mechanics. Lorentz found these transformations (Lorentz transformations), but could not give them a correct interpretation. This was done by Einstein in his private theory of relativity.

The discovery of the private theory of relativity showed the limitations of the mechanical picture of the world. Attempts to reduce electromagnetic processes to mechanical processes in a hypothetical medium-the ether-failed. It became clear that the electromagnetic field is a special form of matter whose behavior does not obey the laws of mechanics.

In 1916 Einstein built the general theory of relativity – the physical theory of space, time and gravitation. This theory marked a new stage in the development of the theory of gravitation.

At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, before the special theory of relativity had been created, the greatest revolution in the field of physics connected with the appearance and development of the quantum theory had begun.

At the end of the 19th century it became clear that the energy distribution of thermal radiation over the spectrum, derived from the law of classical statistical physics on the uniform distribution of energy in the degrees of freedom, was contrary to experience. It followed from the theory that matter must emit electromagnetic waves at any temperature, lose energy, and cool down to absolute zero, i.e. that thermal equilibrium between matter and radiation was impossible. However, everyday experience contradicted this conclusion. The way out was found in 1900 by M. Planck, who showed that the results of the theory agree with experience, if we assume, in contradiction with classical electrodynamics, that atoms emit electromagnetic energy not continuously, but in separate portions – quanta. The energy of each such quantum is directly proportional to the frequency, and the coefficient of proportionality is the action quantum h = 6.6×10-27 erg×sec, later called Planck’s constant.

In 1905, Einstein extended Planck’s hypothesis, suggesting that the emitted portion of electromagnetic energy also spreads and is absorbed only as a whole, i.e. behaves like a particle (it was later called a photon). On the basis of this hypothesis, Einstein explained the laws of the photoelectric effect, which do not fit into the framework of classical electrodynamics.

By this time E. Rutherford (1911) on the basis of experiments on the scattering of alpha particles by matter discovered the atomic nucleus and built a planetary model of the atom. In the Rutherford atom, the electrons move around the nucleus, just as the planets move around the sun. However, according to Maxwell’s electrodynamics, such an atom is unstable: electrons moving in circular (or elliptical) orbits, experience acceleration and, consequently, must constantly emit electromagnetic waves, lose energy and, gradually approaching the nucleus, in the end (as shown by calculations, in a time of about 10-8 seconds) fall on it. Thus, the stability of atoms and their linear spectra turned out to be inexplicable within the laws of classical F. Bohr found a way out of this difficulty. He postulated that atoms have special stationary states, in which electrons do not emit radiation. Radiation occurs during the transition from one stationary state to another. The discreteness of the energy of the atom was confirmed by the experiments of J. Frank and H. Hertz (1913-14) on the study of collisions of electrons accelerated by an electric field with atoms. For the simplest atom, the hydrogen atom, Bohr constructed a quantitative theory of the radiation spectrum consistent with experience.

At the same period (the end of the 19th-beginning of the 20th centuries) the F. of solids in its modern understanding as the F. of condensed systems with a huge number of particles (~1022-cm-3) began to take shape: F. of the crystal lattice and F. of electrons in crystals, first of all in metals. Later these directions closed on the basis of the quantum theory.

The post Relativistic and quantum physics. Physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles appeared first on XX-Science2.0.

Physical phenomena.
What does physics study? To answer this question, it is necessary to say that the very name of the science “physics” comes from the ancient Greek word “φύσις” (“fusis”), nature. Nature is all that surrounds us. Air, water, objects, living things, the Earth, the sun, the cosmos, the universe – all this is nature. Nature is eternal and infinite.

Mechanical phenomena are phenomena resulting from motion (narrowly defined as movement in space) and the interaction of objects. This also includes the phenomenon of mutual attraction of celestial bodies. Light phenomena are everything associated with the propagation and action of light. Thermal phenomena include the production of heat, and the exchange of heat between bodies. Electrical phenomena are phenomena related to such special properties of matter as electric charges and magnetism.

Physical laws
Observations and experiments show that the vast majority of phenomena are not chaotic, but quite predictable and regular. For each phenomenon, a cause, a consequence, and a series of interrelated phenomena can be specified.
For example, any object on Earth tends to fall to its surface. Falling, it acquires a certain velocity. If it touches other objects, it loses some of its speed, and the objects it touches begin to move. These are all mechanical phenomena studied in physics.

For each specific object, you can specify the measure with which the fall will occur, followed by the touching of other objects and subsequent movements. All these measures – the degree of interaction between the Earth and the object, the velocity of the object falling and its change over time, the interaction of the object with others, and the rates of subsequent movements – are called physical quantities. Physical quantities are related to each other by mathematical formulas and laws, which are called physical laws.

For example, the basic law of dynamics (Newton’s second law) relates such quantities as the force acting on the body, the mass of the body and the acceleration obtained by the body.

Knowing the force acting on the body and its mass, we can find the acceleration the body receives as a result of that force. For our example, knowing the force of gravity acting on an object and its mass, we can find the acceleration produced by that object. And then, knowing acceleration and time, using the laws of kinematics (a special branch of physics), we can find the speed of the falling object at any point in time.

The goal of physics is to discover and study the physical laws that operate in nature and to use them in life. In any field studied by physics, there are a number of physical laws that describe phenomena in their most general form. The simultaneous action of all these laws gives rise to the diversity of nature that exists in the world.

The post What does physics study? appeared first on XX-Science2.0.